Education Week Class Notes: Judaism and Early Christianity

Here we have notes from a variety of classes on Judaism and Christianity: Leviticus, Judaism at the time of Jesus, the forty day ministry of Christ, Apostles and bishops and the loss of authority, and Qumran excavations.

 

Unraveling Leviticus—How the Ordinances, Teachings, and Practices of Leviticus Connect with and Testify to the Restored Gospel of Jesus Christ: The Holiness Code  Leviticus 17-27 (by Shon D Hopkin)

Prevalence of ordinances in Leviticus. Ours are connected and built upon them.

This gives us an opportunity to talk about temple ordinances too.

Other scholars see Leviticus as a separate author, but Hopkins doesn’t see it that way.

Resources for more reading on Leviticus:

--Covenant & Conversation: Leviticus, Rabbi Jonathon Sack

--Anchor Bible Commentary: Leviticus (3 vols), Jacob Milgrom (very technical, loves seeing it as unified and why, where it meets the people’s needs)

--Verse by verse Commentary, Kelly Ogden & Andrew Skinner

--Symbols & Shadows: Unlocking a deeper understanding of the atonement, Donald Parry.

--Deeper Understanding of the atonement

--Jewish Study Bible (Old Testament) (old Jewish commentaries, underpinning Jewish ideas)

--The Commentator’s Bible : Genesis- Deuteronomy

McConkie thought Leviticus has no especial application to us and need not give us permanent concern, except for a few passages. Hopkins spent a little time joking about how McConkie’s assessment kind of pulls the rug out from under him. (“Why even take this class?” “But look! You’re still here!”)

True, the ordinances in Leviticus aren’t our ordinances, they aren’t as central for us to understand, but they tell us the kind of things God may do in ordinances, and they are meant to draw us up through levels of ordinances.

They form a foundation of what we still do today.

Joseph Smith may have indicated that there might be return of blood sacrifices at the Jerusalem again. Others are not so sure.

Leviticus is the middle of the books of Moses. In the middle we often find the points of emphasis.

This is the first book studied by Jewish children.

Feast of Weeks, Pentecost, or Feast of Harvest, Lev 23:15-22

--50 days after Passover (May-June)

--Commemorates arrival at Sinai and law written on stone tablets

--All came to Jerusalem to be tithed, sacrifice, grain offerings.

--Commemorates the bounteous blessings after Egypt deliverance. Today Ruth is read & Torah read at nighttime.

--In NT, Pentecost is 50 days after crucifixion, time at which God wrote the law on their hearts by giving Holy Ghost (Christ was the planting, and first-fruits, Holy Ghost was the harvest of his sacrifice)

In Israel they have Sabbath elevators – The elevator stops at every floor so you don’t have to push the button.

Rosh Hashanah – Leviticus 23:23-25  (Sept- Oct)

--163 days after 1^st Passover.

--Also known as festival of trumpets (100 blasts)

--This is the new year, commemorates the creation of Adam & Eve and naming of the animals

--Anticipates the opening of the heavens as Messiah comes and the beginning of Judgment (concluded Yom Kippur)

--A day of remembrance and goal setting

--Creation, law giving, time to anoint kings.

--Joyful wedding feast between God and Israel

--Tashlikh ritual, prayers said by flowing water and one’s sins are then symbolically cast in.  Mikvahs and immersion in living, flowing waters.

--Part of the high holy days and followed by day of atonement 10 days later

Feast of Tabernacles Kukkot Lev 23:24-44

Booths commemorated their wandering in the wilderness. Lots of rules about materials and how they are made. Meals made there, some sleep there.

--Lasts 7 days

--Ecclesiastes is read because of its focus on the passing nature of life.

--Law to be read

--Judgment to be delivered this day.

--Tradition: Walking 7 times around synagogue with branch of citron tree, a palm frond, a branch of myrtle tree, willow branch.

--Tradition: On day eight the Torah is taken out and goes around the synagogue 7 days.

Book of Mormon delivered to Joseph Smith at a time that coincided with the Feast of Tabernacles. (Interesting! Things that make you go ‘hmmm’)

At the center of King Benjamin’s lecture is a discussion of atonement, repeating the words of an angel, speaking with the tongue of angels.

People cleansed of their sins

People are given God’s name

Summary of chapters in Leviticus

Kosher Laws

17 laws regarding sacrifices and blood

18-20 laws governing sexual relations

Purpose of the Law of Moses – Ye shall be holy because I am holy (Leviticus 19:2)

--To make them holy as God is holy.

--Dimensions of altar, laver : These tell  us we are operating in God’s realm and we perform ordinances to become as He is.

--To bring behaviors on earth from the common realm to the realm of God – eating, career, intimacy, social interactions, childbirth

--To protect Israelites spiritually from apostate, degraded influences of foreign religions and set them apart so they could be blessing to others.

--To protect Israelites physically (kosher laws)

--To constantly remind Israelites of their status and submission to God.

Main principle: We are not animals, we are children of Christ. We don’t launch into our lives like an animal, we keep God in mind and do things in holy ways.

Covenants create order out of chaos.

Coming to the highest level of holiness.  Baptism, gift of the holy ghost, sacrament, temple covenants.

Eating what God tells us what we don’t eat or drink so we submit to God. Healthy or not doesn’t matter, we just submit to God.

Jesus lived the Law of Moses.

Earth (mankind)>>(upward)>>and (Israel & Ger)>> Priests

Modern Christian misconceptions about the Law of Moses?

How to understand additions in Jesus’s time

After Babylonian exile, Jews say “never sin in idolatry again” They build a fence around the law. They judge others not by the law, but by the fence.

New Testament view of the Jews: They are a law to themselves and so cannot recognize the lawgiver.

A more sympathetic view of the Jews: Rather than performing the law their own way, they want to perform it as God wants.

What about the Jews’ view of Christian Sabbath observance?  (Christians seem to be doing whatever they want, rather than trying to find out what God wants)

Some examples of Pharisaic laws of the Sabbath:

--No soaking of things before Sabbath unless they can be completed the previous day.

--No making bread unless it is mostly done (picky definitions of what parts should be baked for a loaf to be “done”)

--A woman may not go out with a needle that has an eye (she might work or advertise her sewing skills, which is also work)

--If a man took out a loaf into the public domain he is guilty, if two men took it out, they are not guilty (because they can’t tell who of the two is carrying more of it.)

Orthodox Jews can’t drive on the Sabbath. Neighbors open their parking lot for them to park there.

Are there things we do as LDS that make obedience difficult like this?

Do we look for loopholes like this? (Waiting until midnight on the Sabbath?)

Teachings from the holiness Code Lev. 19:

--Fear parents

--Offer sacrifice at your own will

--No making people stumble

--No avenging or grudges; love your neighbor

--Honor the old

--Don’t vex the foreigner

--Treat a foreigner as if he is a native and love him the same as yourself (Reminds us of the sealing of children that weren’t born in the covenant)

Confusing teachings from the code:

--Sacrifices should be burned after the third day of not eating. Why? They are sacred; they shouldn’t be disrespected.

--Don’t let cattle or seed mix with other types of cattle or seed.  (This mixing was a heathen practice. ) Principle: Israel should not mingle sexually with non-Israel.   This was something done in temple clothing and belongs in a divine realm.

--Don’t tattoo, don’t cut corners of hair.  (Jews keep long locks on the front sides.) This avoids ancient pagan mourning rite.

Sabbaths

--Every 7^th day, 7^th month, 7^th year.  Land rested, what grew naturally was for the poor, owner, family, servants, beasts. Debts cancelled.    The idea is God will provide and create for us.

--Every 50 years, land reverts to original Israelite family. Israelite debt slaves set free. 

Kosher Laws Lev 11 What to eat or not.

--Respect for life, only eat certain things.

--Second concern, holiness. 

The animals that weren’t to be eaten were those that couldn’t be domesticated easily, could carry diseases, were worshipped by false religions..

Later prohibitions – no cooking or eating meat and milk together is the most prohibitive.  Led to major separations between meats and milks, different utensils and spaces of time between eating them.

Lev 26 Blessings:

--Rain in due season

--Promise of chasing one’s enemies (Implies moral force, confidence in God, steadfastness)

--Bravery

--God will be among you

--We will be my people

Judiasm at the time of Jesus (by Matthew J. Grey)

The church has been developing a new college-level curriculum for institute.  Course on Jesus.

It’s critical to understand the Judaism at the time of Jesus to understand his message and actions.

We use the phrase “the Jews” to refer to the large entity as a block.

Instead there were priests, sages, mystics, apocalyptic visionaries, ascetic holy men, Hellenized philosophers, Romanized aristocrats, itinerant preacher, village miracle workers, popular prophetic figures, nationalist zealots.

We can use “JudiasmS” instead.

(Jesus wasn’t the only one performing miracles)

Ask what type of group Jesus was interacting with.

Don’t forget Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, disciples of John, etc.

Teachings and actions of Jesus have to be understood by understanding which group he’s dealing with at the time.

We have to go back to Old Testament for a little here to define the core of common Judaism:

--Holiness (kadosh): set apart or different from everything around it. God called Israel as a holy people.  Covenant people are different and set apart from the cultures around.  It is the basis of the Law of Moses.

--Law of Moses makes Israel holy (set apart)

--God dwells in the Jerusalem temple.

--Hereditary priesthood that mediates between God and the people. Takes sacrifices to God on behalf of people, and takes message from God to people.

Zadokite priesthood, Zadok was first high priesthood of the temple of Solomon.

Inter-Testamental period

Conquest of Alexander the Great and the spread of Hellenism

Alexander  empire 336-323 BC Conquers Persian empire

Brings in a foreign culture.

Hellenism blended Greek and local culture to add stability and longevity to his empire.

This poses a question for Jews. Will they become Hellenized or not? To what extent can Jews participate in it and still maintain their covenantal holiness?

It’s never as easy as outright rejecting the other culture.  The question fractures Judaism to groups that respond differently.

Language.  Question: Do you adopt the language?  Elites speak Greek..

Most Jews weren’t ideologically opposed to speaking Greek. 

Elites adopt it and only speak Greek. This led to the need for the Torah to be translated into Greek (Septuagint)

Septuagint becomes the Old Testament of the earliest Christians.

Entertainment.  Question: Do you go to theaters?  Do you go to Stadiums with athletic competition?  Do you participate in athletic events?

Jews were more divided about this. The Greeks run naked, which was disturbing.

Conservatives were in effect asking “What’s it rated?” 

Education and Lifestyle.  Gymnasium and nudity.  (gymnasium meant naked)

At the gymnasium, circumcision became obvious between Jews and Greeks.

This causes more fracturing. 

Elite classes in urban settings were more open to it, interestingly.  Maccabbees tells of Jewish priests badly who wanted to participated and surgically reversed their circumcision to fit in.

Philosophy and ethics – Socrates, Plato, Aristotle.  Question: Are you open to learning the philosophies of the Greeks?

Some thought it was okay, some thought it wasn’t.  More fracturing occurred in Judaism because of this.

Jewish intellectuals were studying Greek philosophy and writing to show Moses was a philosopher.

Modernist  progressives were wealthy and urban.  They were okay with it because of their connection to government.

Traditionalists conservatives (lower-middle class, rural) reject Hellenization, and they intensified their differences to try to remain different.

Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-164BC)

Until him, Hellenization has never been forced on the Jews.  Antiochus insisted on forcing it at the point of the sword.  (see 1, 2 Maccabees)

--Temple converted to temple of Zeus. Pig sacrifice. Some Jews were okay with that. (!?)

--Jerusalem converted into a Greek polis

--High priests replaced by political appointees. 

--Jewish law was banned, replaced by Greek law. Circumcision punishable by death.

--Jewish priests adopt Hellenistic lifestyle

Traditionalists decide to revolt or their way of life will be obliterated.

Maccabean revolt 167-142BC  raised Messianic hopes, which were dashed later.

Hasmonean dynasty 142-63BC  They liked Hellenism and embraced it.

Assumption of high priesthood and revival of Hellenism among upper class

This is the formation and crystallization of Jewish sects with names

Sadducees were progressive.

Pharisees were traditionalist

They have in common that they both don’t like Jesus.

What debates are they having?

--Degree of Hellenization and Romanization

--Legitimacy of Jerusalem temple and priesthood (some people were really upset about this)

--Religious leadership (hereditary or lay Torah scholarship?)  Alternative forms of leadership develop.  Local village sages and lay Torah scholars begin to appear.

--Scriptural authority and canon (written Torah or ancestral tradition? Which takes precedence?) Major debate with different responses. Sadducees only accept 5 books of Moses and nothing else. Others canonize prophetic writings. 

--What kind of weight do you give to ancestral tradition?  This impacts theology and doctrinal teachings. Issues of resurrection, angels, Messiah, end times, etc.  No resurrection mentioned in 5 books of Moses so Sadducees don’t accept resurrection. Sadducees don’t believe in angels or end times or Messiah.  (And why would you want a Messiah if you’re in charge of things? Messiahs are for marginalized groups)

Pharisees

Apocalyptic visionaries, nationalistic zealots, Jewish philosophers, popular prophetic figures, messianic claimants.

Essenes called themselves the sons of Zadok, believed they were the heirs of the Zadokites.

New Testament Christianity, Creedal Christianity, Mormon Christianity: Restoration Teachings and Early Christianity: The Forty Day Ministry: Prelude to preaching the gospel in the early church (by Stephen D. Ricks)

It was THE formative experience for the apostles and disciples of Jesus in the ancient church.

It is the transition from doubt to certainty and commitment.

It prepared the apostles for committed and energetic missionary labors despite violent opposition.

Pre-resurrection Doubt

Peter didn’t think he would doubt and not be offended, but Jesus warned him he would be.  All the other disciples said the same thing as Peter.

Peter denied Jesus three times. (Matt 26:74-75)

The disciples had weakness.  (Matt 26:40-42) They could not watch with him one hour. Their eyes were heavy.

The doubt of all the disciples

Peter’s denial of Jesus and Thomas’s expression of doubt likely represent all the disciples doubt after the crucifixion. (John 20:24-25) Others had seen the Lord, but he said unless he saw and touched, he would not believe. 

Jesus did reassure Thomas. (John 20:26-28)

Probably al the disciples doubted after the crucifixion.

Post forty-day ministry

Peter heals the infirm (acts 3:4-7) In the name of Jesus Christ of Nazareth rise up and walk.

Peter speaks in tongues on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4)

From doubt to commitment: What event proved decisive in transforming the apostles from doubters to firmly committed believers? The 40-day ministry.

We now possess in the early apocryphal writings an impressive body of evidence that bears on the historicity of the 40-days.  (Acts 1:2-3) showed Himself alive by many infallible proofs being seen forty days and speaking of the kingdom of God.

Examples: Pseudoclementiana, the Apocryphon of James, the letters of peter to Philip, the Gospel of Philip, the Acts of Thomas, Andrew, John, Peter, Philip, and Matthias, and the Martyrdom of Matthew.

They are found in the Apocrypha New Testament

Some are Gnostic writings in the Nag Hamadi materials.

A favorite theme of the apocrypha is the teachings of the Lord to the apostles during the forty days.

When Ignatius wants an unanswerable argument for the resurrection, he appeals to the forty days and a non-canonical witness.

It has always disturbed scholars so they don’t like to discuss it,

How do scholars view the 40-day ministry?

40-day periods of spiritual discipline and preparation.

40 has to do with observation, expectation, but especially with separation.

Some thing it is a mere example of condescension and friendship or a magnanimous recompense for a long farewell.

The most conspicuous teaching in the forty days is the picture of the future which is unrelieved pessimism and gloom: violent end to the disciples, they will be rejected by all men and there will be false shepherds within the church. The events are limited to a scope of two generations, the undoing of the Christian society by perverters and corrupters in its midst.

Nothing is reported about the forty-day ministry.

Luke tells about the ministry, but says nothing about it.

Ignatius mentions the handling of the Lord by peter

D&C 91 about the apocrypha of the Old Testament

Persistence of early Christian ritual

The rites all look to the temple and to the instructions of the forty days. There’s a definite residue of early Christian ritual that goes far beyond anything known to later Christianity.

Ritual is conservative, but interpretations are different.

Gnostics whose writings describe the forty-day ministry. They claim to have knowledge but insist adherents accept all of their teachings

Some are very interesting, but others are crazy

The oldest definition of gnosis is the knowledge from the forty day ministry.

Gnosticism left a mark upon the Christian church that persists today.

Irenaeus charged the Gnostics misrepresented true and familiar doctrines.

--They use genuine logia but give them a false twist,

--they look orthodox,

--they counterfeit ,

--they imitate the sacrament,

--they parody marriage rites,

--they counterfeit revelation with potions and drugs,

--they misinterpret scriptures,

--they are bad interpreters of the good word.

All 40-day teachings are described as secret and to a select group. (Did Jesus warn of this? “He is in the secret chambers”)

Considerable time is taken up with telling the disciples not to disclose what has been taught. 

Coptic gospel of Thomas starts with “the secret words which the living Jesus spoke”

Apocryphon of John on war of heaven

Acts of Thomas on the “seal”: those baptized asked for the seal from the apostles.

The seal might be a name, mark,

Gospel of Philip on marriage-- to obtain the highest of the three heavens

Marriage ordinances caused shock to those who didn’t know what happened in them.

Female disciples in second Jeu “twelve female disciples”

The pearl: an allegory on the plan of salvation.  Hymn of the pearl from the acts of Thomas

40-day ministry included a mount of transfiguration experience with the rest of the apostles. It was also the more sure word of prophecy.

Joseph Smith noted Peter , James, and John were sealed up to eternal life by revelation..  All the apostles were promised eternal life.

3 Ne. 28:1-3  Jesus spoke to his disciples asking them what they wanted and 9 wanted quick return to God, and 3 wanted to live to do missionary work.

Jesus teaches pre-mortal life, creation of the world, life as probationary state, foretells events of the last days, return of Elijah, primitive church perverted after one generation, prepare for tribulation..

He gives them hope for their own resurrection in glory: salvation of the dead is a major theme, ordinances, baptism, sacrament, ordination of apostles, initiation or endowment “mysteries” with emphasis on garments, marriage, prayer circles,

Discusses baptism, sacred meals, washings, anointings, garments, marriage as requirement for highest heaven, creation of the earth and subsequent events with a dramatic monologue between god, Satan, Adam, and Eve.

Detailed account of the fall and expulsion from Eden, heavenly counsel and expulsion of the rebellious offspring

All the apostles were endowed with power from on high. And as the Nephite disciples in the new worlds would be.

New Testament Christianity, Creedal Christianity, Mormon Christianity: Restoration Teachings and Early Christianity: Apostles, Bishops, and the Loss of Authority (by Stephen D. Ricks)

Stephen Ricks wrote some books on marking scriptures.

Eastern church was earlier than the western church.

Jesus created a religious community.

The highest authority was held by the Twelve and at their head was Peter. (Eduard Meyer)

At the present time, do not look for any other prophet or apostle except us. There is one true prophet and twelve apostles. (What Clementine heard Peter say, as in the Clementine Recognitions 4:35)

Clementine heard street preaching and visited with Peter who told him the above.

Clement claimed to be bishop of Rome after Peter.

Bishops were subordinate to apostles.

“They were apostles; I am but a man” (Ignatius of Antioch,)  He also said it would be presumption to issue orders as if he were an apostle.

Iganatius never appeals to his title of bishop of Antioch to give more authority to his instructions. Nor does he use Episcopal (bishop) power to give justification.

Polycarp admitted he couldn’t come up to the wisdom of Paul who accurately and steadfastly taught the word of truth.

The man who tried to settle the Easter controversy was the surest claim that the church had no apostolic guidance any more.  (Hugh Nibley, Apostles and Bishops)

Christ came from God, and the apostles came from Christ. (Clement, Epistle to the Corinthians 42:2)

Was Peter bishop of Rome?

The claim had its origin in the second century and was dogmatically motivated.

Peter was in Rome and was martyred there, but we know nothing about his activities and role in the Christian community in Rome. It is out of the question that he was its first bishop. (Norbert Brox, Kirchengeschichte des Atertums, 106)

The Gospel of the Twelve Apostles has Christ ordain Peter an archbishop, though such an office did not exist before the fourth century.

Each of the Catholic church priesthood offices—bishop, priest, deacon-- are in fact Aaronic priesthood offices. The others – archbishop, cardinal, pope—are post-biblical innovations)

Peter suggests ordaining a bishop in the presence of all the apostles, including Paul and James, bishop of Jerusalem, then doing homage to him. (Apostolic Constitutions)

Neither New Testament nor early Christian history offer support for a notion of apostolic succession as “an unbroken line of Episcopal ordination from Christ through the apostles down through the centuries to the bishops of today. (Sullivan, From Apostles to bishops: The development of the episcopacy in the early church, 15-16)

Thus, if apostles can’t pass on authority, the authority is lost.

Some fellow named Stephen in second century boasted of his episcopate and contends he holds the succession from Peter. (Firmilian, cited by Cyprian of Carthage, Epistles 74:17)

No bishop sets himself as a bishop of bishops, since every bishop, according to his liberty and power, has his own proper right of judgment and can’t be judged by others, nor can he judge another. (Cyprian, Concerning the baptism of heretics.)

Through the changes of time and successions, the ording flow onwards so that the church is founded upon the bishops and ever act is controlled by them, (Cyprian, Epistle 26.1)  People are writing in the name of the church.

“no bishop should annoy another bishop” (Council of Arles, 4^th century)

James as an anomaly

By the end of the first century, prophecy was not being poured out as expected in the last times. (W.H.C. Frend, The Rise of Christianity, 140)

“The apostles died out” (Norbert Brox)

Apostolic period closed by the year 67 when peter, Paul and James had disappeared from the scene. The sub-apostolic period had the last third of the first century during which most of the New Testament was written with the exception of the undisputed letters of Paul.

When the apostles became extinct, and those who heard them passed away, then fraud and delusions of false teachers arose. So they attempted without shame to preach their false doctrine against the gospel of truth.(Hegesippus, in Eusebius, Historia Ecclesiastica 3.32.8)

James the Lord’s brother received a calling to join the twelve. (Gal 1:19)

The quandary of the post-apostolic Christian church

Unspiritual, institutionalized, compromised by worldliness in the second century.

The gift of prophecy was the strongest recommendation to divinity, and eventually the main church no long possessed it.

Tertullian left the church when he saw that. He became a Montanist. They preached that prophecy must be found in the church if it is the true church. (Nibley) 

Eventually he realized the Montanists didn’t have it either, so he left them too.

Tertullian challenged churches to show him the gift of prophecy and he would acknowledge their divinity.

He insisted the church was not bishops; it was the spirit working through an inspired man.

Miraculous powers conferred upon the apostles are their credentials to prove they were bearers of new revelation from God to man. So those gifts could be withdrawn. (John Kaye, Bishop of Lincoln, The Ecclesiastical History of the Second and Third Centuries illustrated from the writings of Tertullian)

Many were reluctant to believe that the powers were withdrawn. Combined prejudice and policy made them anxious to conceal the truth.

In second century, they had a suspicion that the power of working miracles was withdrawing. They affirmed miracles, but couldn’t point to particular instances. They tried to keep up belief in its continuity. Some invented miracles.

The return of apostles and prophets?

The second century is like a tunnel we emerge from to find an unexpected situation.

The Dead Sea Scrols and the Archeology of Qumran: The Excavations at Qumran (Matthew J. Grey)

Found 11 caves total containing scrolls

Pattern: Caves in the immediate vicinity of a clump of ruins.  

The ruins were assumed to be a Roman fort, and they were ignored.

Rising interest in those ruins.

Ruins of a settlement on the north side of a dry wadi

On the cliffs overlooking the wadi are the ruins.

1951-1956: Roand De Vaux and G. Landkester Harding start excavating the site, hoping for light on the context of the scrolls and caves.

De Vaux was a French Catholic priest. Harding was inspector of antiquities with Jordan government.

Found cylindrical jars with bowl-shaped lids. This is a very unique pottery style, found no-where else in Judea.

This linked the cave scrolls with the Qumran site.

Interpretations: 1) site is associated with the scrolls. 2) sectarian settlement of Essenes. (Josephus spoke of them, but they were not mentioned in the New Testament)

Philo had a geographic reference to the Essenes.

De Vaux came up with a chronology of Qumran.

Iron age : cistern, rectangular building

Period 130-100BC : sectarian settlement. Essenes move in.

100-31 BC, Earthquake in 31BC: They returned and repaired it.

Period 4BC-68 AD: destruction by fire in 68AD.  Romans came in and destroyed and burned it, toppled it.  Some Essenes fled down to Masada afterwards, taking some of their scrolls there too.

Period 68AD to 73AD: Roman garrison of tenth fretensis

Big round cistern survives today.

At time of Jesus, there was western complex and eastern complex.  All fed by the same water system.

Channels all around the site taking water about the settlement.

Water features

The site is alienated from civilization. No natural springs.

They got water from flash floods from the wadi to the west that happened once or twice a year.

Use aqueducts and water channels to direct the rain. Used to fill up ritual baths and mikvaot.

Ritual purity was a prime priority for them. They have more ritual baths than water cisterns for drinking.

Qumran lacks personal private living space.

Who lived here? Where did they sleep?

They think 100-150 people living there at most at any given time.

This seems to be a sectarian community center people come to for a time and then eventually go back home. This is like a periodic temple service period because they thought the temple priesthood was in apostasy.

They perhaps lived in tents outside the settlement or in the caves themselves.

Qumran’s western complex seems to have been an industrial area. Eastern buildings have the interesting things.

A large watch tower guarded northern flank of the site.  Guarded people from the north or south.  They probably saw the Roman legions coming from it.

Scriptorium – rectangular room. The place where the scrolls were written, copied, preserved, produced. 

Found ink wells, benches/tables that spread over a whole room. Ink wells are very rare. An indicator of scribe activity. 3-4 ink wells found there, only two inkwells found elsewhere in Israel.

Potsherds found that were written as scribal exercises. (Potsherds were the sticky-notes of the ancient world, since pottery is breaking all the time.)

Probably scroll storage as well.

De Vaux thought people sat at tables to copy scrolls, but no, they sit on the floor with writing materials on their laps. What are tables used for? Unrolling the scrolls and sewing them together.

Synagogue? 

Plastered benches all along the walls facing each other, west of scriptorium.

Reading, praying, hymn-singing. At all times they had at least 10 men there who read Torah and say prayers, then they are relieved. 

They believed they were communing with angels if they were saying certain words at certain times of day.

Assembly and dining hall.

Large rectangular room fitting 100-150 men. Adjacent to it is a pantry with 1000 stacked table dishes.  (plates, cups, bowls)

This is interesting because usually the Jews would have a communal dish and eat out of it.  But in Qumran each had their own dishes to avoid contaminating each other ritually.

Found a bunch of animal bones (kosher) that had been put in pottery, buried about the site.  This suggest the community treated their meat like sacrificial animals. This is like eating sacrificial meat from the temple.

They are treating their community like a temple. 

In the dining room, all sit on the floor with individual cup and bowl, one would say blessings. Noted and described by Josephus. 

Food: Bread, wine, and limited thin stews.

They would use these meals to look forward to the Messianic banquet at the end times.

Mikvots and toilets. 

Toilets still smelled like human feces even now. He found their latrine, which was exciting. ;-)  Latrine in a covered room, had to go by a mikva bath.

At the time of Jesus, latrines were not a thing. Usually people went in the streets. So Essene toilet was very unusual for its time.  They cared about toilet privacy, for purity reasons.  Must wash yourself ritually after you go.

Manure merchants would come clean out cesspits, then sell it to farmers for fertilizer.

Pottery factory.

Their own kiln for distinctive pottery.  Tall jars, plates, cups, bowls for their dining.

Final feature—Qumran cemetery. 

Graves identified by piled-up stones. For anyone residing in Qumran at the time and died while there.  Only two graves were women, none were children. Most of them were men. 

Shaft graves. Put body in shaft, cover body, then fill in the shaft with rubble.

Challenges to De Vaux’s interpretation in recent years.

--No scrolls found at the site. How strong is the connection then?

--No final excavation report. He never published a final report. We have to go off his notes.

Six excavations of Qumran since him.

Alternative theories presented 1980s to present:

--fortress?

--country villa

--potter factory?

--fortified manor house

--agricultural estate

All alternative theories must dissociate site from the scrolls (but not a problem because the site burned to the ground so the scrolls would have burned), and all are selective with the evidence. 

The only theory that accounts for the full evidence and acknowledges the scrolls is the sectarian Essene theory of De Vaux.

True doctrine can end religious strife

22 And also they had peace in the seventy and eighth year, save it were a few contentions concerning the points of doctrine which had been laid down by the prophets.

23 And in the seventy and ninth year there began to be much strife. But it came to pass that Nephi and Lehi, and many of their brethren who knew concerning the true points of doctrine, having many revelations daily, therefore they did preach unto the people, insomuch that they did put an end to their strife in that same year. (Helaman 11:22-23)

There are several neat things in these verses. First, true doctrine preached puts an end to religious strife. We’ve seen elsewhere that it has more effect on the minds of the people than the sword or anything else. It dispels doubt and ignorance and can become a shield against deceptions of the devil. (Of course, when people are more determined to carry their point than to learn the truth, it is another story.)

Another neat thing is that Nephi and Lehi and many others who knew the true points of doctrine still had many revelations daily. Their strong foundational knowledge did not prevent them from learning more, and they were able to perform a great service with their knowledge by helping end strife over doctrine. I also suppose some of their revelations helped them settle the strife as well.

So a good question for us is, when there is religious controversy do we remember important applicable points of doctrine that can help us settle it? Can we think of verses of scripture on the topic? Can we find applicable scriptures? Are there words of the modern-day prophets on the matter? I suspect that if we haven’t consulted the scriptures or the prophets on the question then we haven’t yet done all we can do, whether we have questions or whether we’re trying to help someone else with questions.

Cause of contention among the Corinthians?

10 Now I beseech you, brethren, by the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, that ye all speak the same thing, and that there be no divisions among you; but that ye be perfectly joined together in the same mind and in the same judgment.

11 For it hath been declared unto me of you, my brethren, by them which are of the house of Chloe, that there are contentions among you.

12 Now this I say, that every one of you saith, I am of Paul; and I of Apollos; and I of Cephas; and I of Christ.

13 Is Christ divided? was Paul crucified for you? or were ye baptized in the name of Paul? (1 Cor. 1:10-13)

We discussed this problem in Sunday school and the importance of unity, and it seemed to me that it is hard to understand this problem in the context of today. We might get hints of the problem now and again if we hear people mentioned who their favorite apostles are. But somehow this contention was started by something that was very important to the Corinthian members. Why was it almost a point of pride to them who they were of?

I suspect that it had something to do with the slow communication in those days and the rarity of higher church leaders coming through. It may be that their isolation made it very important to them to remember the gospel message as preached from the ones who converted them. They would cling to that tenaciously.

We get to hear from general authorities at stake and general conferences, but how often did they in that day? And each leader might have had a slightly different emphasis, even though the message of Christ was the same.

I can imagine arguments erupting about the importance of some doctrine based on what was emphasized or not by different missionaries.

“Well, Paul told me I needed to do this.”

“What? Apollos didn’t say anything to me about it. He was very concerned about this other thing.”

“You’re kidding! That’s just not right! This doctrine is very important!”

“Then why didn’t Apollos say much about it?”

“Because he’s not as righteous, I guess.”

“What? He’s just as good as Paul! And he’s a better speaker!”

(erupts into argument and mutual recriminations and insults)

I think that in many respects our improved communications make this less of a problem, but I also think the rise of social media expands the scope of contentions if they arise, enabling arguments across the church, rather than in just one ward. We can’t say that we don’t get enough direction from leaders to know what’s true doctrine, but it is just as true as it was in Paul’s day that our contentions mean we are carnal and need to go back to basic doctrines.

For ye are yet carnal: for whereas there is among you envying, and strife, and divisions, are ye not carnal, and walk as men? (1 Cor. 3:3)

If we have to be told not to fight, the doctrine of unity has not been written on our hearts. If we have to be told to follow the brethren, the doctrine of revelation coming through proper channels has not been written on our souls. If we have to be reminded of our duty, our duties have not yet penetrated.

Results of confusion and evil works

For where envying and strife is,

there is confusion and every evil work. (James 3:16) 

This is very instructive because it shows us that confusion and evil works have direct results—envying and strife.

Confusion happens when a person is torn in two or more directions at once by different forces, each which act on different desires that can’t both be gratified.  In the church, members’ confusion tends to arise when commandments and doctrine and the desire to do good pulls one way and the philosophies of the world with negative peer pressure and desire for popularity and praise of the world and the weight of “this is just how things are today” pulls another way.

Confusion combined with disobedience to the commandments leads to a pitiable state of unhappiness and discontent.  (Wickedness never was happiness..)  The discomfort at this stage causes one to cast about, not for ways to change for the better, but to find something or someone to blame.  “Who is causing my problem?  It can’t be me.”  Anyone who seems happy is both despised for their “simplistic outlook” and envied for a state that seems forever out of reach.  External requirements and expectations become burdensome, particularly in the area where sin is.  It becomes easier to fight the commandments than to obey them.

But let’s turn this around.  If confusion and evil works bring out envy and strife, then it is just as true that certainty (testimony) and every good work bring out contentment and peace.

Laman & Lemuel’s arguments and Nephi’s rebuttals

 

In 1 Nephi 17 when Nephi is about to build a ship, his brothers are reluctant to work on it, so they use a number of arguments to try to discourage him.  Nephi is able to rebut them, however, and it is instructive to see how he does it, point for point, but not necessarily in order. 

 One thing is clear—he sees how their journey is a parallel of the exodus from Egypt, complete with manifestations of God’s power on one hand and murmuring people on the other.  He draws strength from this account, perhaps by seeing that his father (and him) play the part of Moses, and he reminds his brothers of how they have murmured like the children of Israel, he does this in order to encourage them to learn from the warning stories of Exodus about suffering and chastisement that come from murmuring.  (Laman and Lemuel may not see it that way, however; they may just think Nephi is beating them over the head for their past mistakes.)

So let’s look at how the arguments correspond.

Laman and Lemuel – You can’t build a ship.  You lack judgment.  You can’t accomplish that great work. (v19)

Nephi—If God told me to do all things, I could do them.  He could command me to do miracles and I could do it.  He’s done miracles in the past. If so, He can instruct me how to build a ship.  (v50-51)
(Nephi has an ironclad trust in the Lord, but He also has confidence in his ability to discern what the Lord wants him to do, and he's willing to do it.)

Laman and Lemuel—You’re like our father—led away by the foolish imaginations of his heart. (v20)

Nephi—The Lord leads the righteous away into precious lands (v38).  (It’s the Lord that does the leading.)  You are slow to remember the Lord.  You’ve seen an angel and heard him speak, you’ve heard the Lord’s voice, both when it was a still small voice and when it was like thunder.  But you are past feeling and hard in your hearts (v45-48).  (Nephi is suggesting they should know better than to call it foolish imaginations when they’ve had dramatic manifestations of their own, which they’ve forgotten.)

Laman and Lemuel—We have wandered many years in the wilderness and we have suffered and our women have suffered, and we’ve suffered everything except death (v20,21).

Nephi—The Lord had to straiten the children of Israel with a rod because they hardened their hearts, and He’s done the same to you.  The Lord straitened them because of their iniquity, one example being fiery flying serpents that He sent among them.  He also prepared the way for them to be healed by looking and it was so easy that many died because they thought it was too easy to work (v42).  (Nephi implies that if his brothers just looked to God, they would not suffered as much or they would have been healed much faster.)

Laman and Lemuel-- During the time we have suffered, we might have enjoyed our possessions and our land and been happy in Jerusalem (v21).

Nephi—It was a good thing that the children of Israel were led out of their hard bondage (v25). (Nephi implies therefore that it is a good thing the family has been led out of Jerusalem because they have suffered and been in bondage because of the wickedness of the people, and that would have continued if they had stayed.)

Laman and Lemuel—It would have been better if our families had died before they came out of Jerusalem than to have suffered as they have (v20). 

Nephi-- Jerusalem has become wicked and nearly ripe and about to be destroyed (v43). (Nephi implies that if Laman and Lemuel had stayed there, they and their famlies might have been dead by now, so it is not like they would have escaped something by staying.)

Laman and Lemuel—The people in Jerusalem were righteous.  They kept the commandments in the law of Moses.  Our father judged them (v22).

Nephi—The Jews tried to kill our father, and so have you, so you are murderers just like the Jews (v44).  You are quick to do iniquity and show to remember the Lord, even though you’ve had some amazing manifestations (v45).  (Nephi implies that Laman and Lemuel only think Jerusalem was righteous because L&L are as bad as them, so they don’t see a problem with what went on at Jerusalem.)

We see that Laman and Lemuel really pulled out all the rhetorical arguments they could think of to keep from having to take part in the ship-building project.  They question Nephi’s intelligence, they question Lehi’s and Nephi’s sanity, they call into question the need for any of the experiences they’ve had since leaving Jerusalem, and they try to invalidate any reason for having left.

Nephi is able to counter everything they say with a combination of 1) strong trust in the Lord, 2) personal application of the scriptures, 3) knowledge of right and wrong, 4) and memory not just of his own spiritual experiences, but those of his father and his brothers.  

We can use this same combination in our own lives to counter attacks on our faith, and it seems to me that Nephi hoped we see that and apply that lesson in our own lives. 

We can see that Nephi’s faith is a living thing that he uses all the time, whereas his brothers can barely muster any faith at all.  They forget almost as soon as they get out of whatever predicament they are in, so they are caught unprepared for each subsequent problem that requires faith. 

Now, if it were only an argument, it might not mean as much.  The thing that makes this story really special is that the Lord backs Nephi's arguments with a manifestation of power.  Laman and Lemuel may have thought there was no way to prove who was right, but the Lord zapped that notion right out of their heads.  I think that means that when we are standing up for our faith, the Lord will also back us up with power, though it may not involve shocking people.

I am trying to increase my faith these days.  When I wake up, I think about the work of the day and sometimes I quail just a little, but then I try to exert my faith that I can do good things and the Lord will help me.  I remind myself that I will be happier if I give it my best effort than if I try to avoid it.  I work to keep a positive attitude.  I pray for help and to be courageous, especially since I’ve had to fight anxiety for a while.

Why we can be of good cheer (part 4)

Continuing on with this series of posts on what reasons the scriptures tell us we have for being of good cheer...

Part 1 

Part 2

Part 3

Part 4

Part 5

Next is an instance in D&C 61.  The background for this revelation was a situation in which the elders of the restored church were traveling down the Missouri river in canoes and many dangers of were encountered, along with Brother Phelps receiving an open vision of the destroyer riding upon the waters, as well as some disagreements and ill feeling.  They had to take the time to make peace and reconcile with each other, and along with the dangers, must have felt somewhat cast down and forsaken by the Lord.  Thus the following verse as revelation to Joseph Smith must have been particularly appreciated:

And now, verily I say unto you, and what I say unto one I say unto all, be of good cheer, little children; for I am in your midst, and I have not forsaken you; (D&C 61:36, emphasis added)

This can help us be of good cheer, showing that even if we feel like the Lord has forsaken us, He hasn’t.  We are all liable to get into situations that are so unpleasant, when perils threaten and it seems that everything we do just makes it worse, when there is screaming and crying, slamming doors, sulking, and so on.  We may ask ourselves, “Why would the Lord ever want to stay with me in this situation?” 

Just because we can’t feel Him near doesn’t mean that He isn’t.  He doesn’t give up on us (“I have not forsaken you”) and can be with us, even if we can’t tell He’s there (“I am in your midst”).

I especially like that in the above verse the Lord addresses the elders as “little children” because it is an indication that He knew they were trying to be meek and teachable like little children.  Little children get into trouble occasionally, but that doesn’t mean one gives up on them.

Next instance of cheer..  When the Lord gave the law of consecration, He also included this particular verse:

And ye cannot bear all things now; nevertheless, be of good cheer, for I will lead you along. The kingdom is yours and the blessings thereof are yours, and the riches of eternity are yours. (D&C 78:18, emphasis added)

Sometimes in our spiritual progression, our desires exceed our abilities and what we hope for exceeds what we are prepared to do.  Some obedience comes easy and some comes very hard.  From time to time we will find ourselves saying with Nephi, “Oh wretched man that I am” and sorrowing over the sins and temptations that seem to beset us so easily, when we wish we could rejoice. 

I believe that the above verse is meant to help us in that kind of discouraging time.  In it the Lord acknowledges that we can’t bear all things now.  He gives us a reason to be of good cheer by assuring us that He will lead us along.  He will give more training, more practice, more experience, and even chasten us until we can bear the full and eternal weight of glory.  Following His lead calls for our best efforts, but isn’t impossible.  And not only that, but the news that the kingdom, the blessings, and the riches of eternity are ours is very heartening, like the promise of an extra wonderful vacation in store after you get back alright from scout camp.  And too, the promise that it is already there for us can buoy us up especially when we think we have lost it somehow.

So, to review.  We can be of good cheer because:

11.  The Lord has not forsaken us.

12.  The Lord is in our midst.

13.  The Lord will lead us along.

14.  The kingdom, the blessings, and riches of eternity are ours.

King Benjamin’s Battles

12 And now, concerning this king Benjamin—he had somewhat of contentions among his own people.
13 And it came to pass also that the armies of the Lamanites came down out of the land of Nephi, to battle against his people. But behold, king Benjamin gathered together his armies, and he did stand against them; and he did fight with the strength of his own arm, with the sword of Laban.
14 And in the strength of the Lord they did contend against their enemies, until they had slain many thousands of the Lamanites. And it came to pass that they did contend against the Lamanites until they had driven them out of all the lands of their inheritance.
15 And it came to pass that after there had been false Christs, and their mouths had been shut, and they punished according to their crimes;
16 And after there had been false prophets, and false preachers and teachers among the people, and all these having been punished according to their crimes; and after there having been much contention and many dissensions away unto the Lamanites, behold, it came to pass that king Benjamin, with the assistance of the holy prophets who were among his people—
17 For behold, king Benjamin was a holy man, and he did reign over his people in righteousness; and there were many holy men in the land, and they did speak the word of God with power and with authority; and they did use much sharpness because of the stiffneckedness of the people—(Words of Mormon 1:12-17)

I noticed for the first time the two different types of battles King Benjamin fought are described. King Benjamin gathered his armies and fought the Lamanites with the sword of Laban until they were driven out of the land. Then he gathered his armies of holy men and prophets and fought against false Christs, false prophets, and false teachers until their mouths had been shut and they had been punished according to their crimes. They fought using the word of God—“they did speak the word of God with power and with authority; and they did use much sharpness” (v17), meaning they used the sword of the Spirit. He fought physical battles and spiritual battles.

What was the result? “[B]y laboring with all the might of his body and the faculty of his whole soul, and also the prophets, did once more establish peace in the land.” (v18) He established both physical and spiritual peace because he fought physical and spiritual battles with both his body and his soul.

What kind of battles am I fighting today? Lots of spiritual battles. If King Benjamin got help from many holy men in his spiritual battles, then we can also get help from the many holy men who have gone before us, as written in the scriptures, and we can get help from words of the living prophets and from each other to fight our spiritual battles. We can use the word of God, which is sharper than a two-edged sword and can pierce through both joints and marrow.

Another reason this block of verses is important is it shows us that the wonderful experiences that King Benjamin had and his people had during his final speech on his tower did not come effortlessly; rather, it was the culmination of a long life of very hard work teaching the people and working with them. Without these verses, it would seem to us that King Benjamin’s experiences were effortless in comparison to Alma the Younger’s hard work teaching the Nephites, and we’d wonder what King Benjamin’s secret was. This shows us King Benjamin had no special secret; he may have worked just as hard or even harder than Alma the Younger and we just don’t get to see the full scope of it all.

How does this apply to us? This helps us realize that when we’re about to get jealous of other families in the church who, seemingly without effort, have such obedient and knowledgeable children who are strong in the gospel, we’re not seeing all the effort they put in to teach their families. We’re only seeing the fruits without seeing the digging, hoeing, planting, pruning, and so on.